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The Geography of Foreign Students in U.S. Higher Education: Origins and Destinations | Brookings Institution

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1. Neil G. Ruiz, “Immigration Facts on Foreign Students,” Washington: Brookings Institution, 2013. Available at www.brookings.edu/metro/foreignstudents; Institute of International Education, Open Doors: Report on International Educational Exchange, New York: Institute of International Education, 2013.

2. Sonia Plaza, “Diaspora resources and policies,” in Amelie F. Constant and Klaus F. Zimmermann, International Handbook on the Economics of Migration (Northhampton: Edward Elger Publishing Limited, 2013), pp. 505-529.

3. AnnaLee Saxenian, The New Argonauts: Regional Advantage in a Global Economy, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007. See also: AnnaLee Saxenian, “Silicon Valley’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs,” San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California, 1999; AnnaLee Saxenian, “From Brain Drain to Brain Circulation: Transnational Communities and Regional Upgrading in India and China,” Studies in Comparative International Development, Summer 2005; AnnaLee Saxenian, “The Bangalore Boom: From Brain Drain to Brain Circulation,” in Kenneth Kenniston and Deepak Kumar (eds), Bridging the Digital Divide: Lessons from India, Bangalore: National Institute of Advanced Study, 2000.

4. Ibid.

5. Sonia Plaza, “Diaspora resources and policies,” in Amelie F. Constant and Klaus F. Zimmermann, International Handbook on the Economics of Migration (Northhampton: Edward Elger Publishing Limited, 2013), pp. 505-529.

6. Beata S. Javorcik, Caglar Ozden, Mariana Spatareanu and Christina Neagu, “Migrant networks and foreign direct investment,” Policy Research Working Paper Series 4046, Washington DC: The World Bank, 2006.

7. Robert Guest, Borderless Economics: Chinese Sea Turtles, Indian Fridges and the New Fruits of Global Capitalism, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

8. For academic research on the brain drain see Jagdish Bhagwati and Dellafar, “The Brain Drain and Income Taxation,” World Development, vol. 1 (1973). See also Jagdish Bhagwati (ed), Taxing the Brain Drain, Vol. 1: A Proposal, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976; Jagdish Bhagwati (ed), The Brain Drain and Taxation, Vol. 2: Theory and Empirical Analysis, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976; and Jagdish Bhagwait and Koichi Hamada, “The Brain Drain International Integration of Markets for Professionals and Unemployment: A Theoretical Analysis,” Journal of Development Economics, vol. 1 (1974: 19-24). Also see recent reporting by Pankaj Mishra, “When the Best and Brightest Leave India and China,” Bloomberg, October 20, 2013. For further explanation of how brain drain has different affects on developing nations depending on the size of the origin country, see David Gibson and David McKenzie, “Eight Questions about Brain Drain,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(3): 107-128.

9. For new research showing a positive impact expatriates make on their home countries see Yevgeny Kuznetsov and Charles Sabel, “International Migration of Talent, Diaspora Networks and Development: Overview of Main Issues,” in Yegvgeny Kuznetsov (eds), Diaspora Networks and the International Migration of Skills: How Countries Can Draw on Their Talent Abroad, Washington: World Bank, 2006.

10. Robert E.B. Lucas, “International Labor Migration in a Globalizing Economy,” Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2008.

11. Partnership for a New American Economy, “Immigrants Behind 76% of Patents from Top American Universities,” New York, June 26, 2012, available at www.renewoureconomy.org/wp- content/uploads/2013/07/patent-pending.pdf; and Diana Furchtogott-Roth, “The Economic Benefits of Immigration,” Issue Brief, no. 18, New York: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, February 2013, available at www.manhattan- institute.org/html/ib_18.htm#.U8QrJFaNJ8Y.

12. Vivek Wadhwa, The Immigrant Exodus: Why America is Losing the Global Race to Capture Entrepreneurial Talent, Philadelphia: Wharton Digital Press, 2012. See also The Partnership for a New American Economy and The Partnership for New York City, “Not Coming to America: Why the U.S. is Falling Behind in the Global Race for Talent,” New York, May 2012, available at www.renewoureconomy.org/sites/all/themes/pnae/not-coming-to-america.pdf.

14. George J. Borjas, “Do Foreign Students Crowd Out Native Students from Graduate Programs?” Boston: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004.

15. George P. Borjas, “The Labor Market Impact of High-Skill Immigration,” American Economic Review, vol. 19, no. 2 (2005).

16. Norm Matloff, “Are Foreign Students the ‘Best and Brightest’? Data and Implications for Immigration Policy,” EPI Briefing Paper #356, Washington: Economic Policy Institute, 2013.

17. The only study examining foreign students at the metropolitan level is the annual Open Doors publication by the Institute of International Education. The annual report is based on survey data of universities to produce an estimated “stock” number of international students, rather than based on actual visa approval data. The report provides the top 50 metropolitan areas with estimated stock data on foreign students, the percent change from the previous school year and the number of educational institutions in the metropolitan area. For stay rates of foreign students after they graduate, national level analysis has been done specifically for foreign doctorate recipients by Michael G. Finn, “Stay Rates on Foreign Doctorate Recipients, 2009,” Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 2012, available at

18. Mark R. Rosenzweig, Douglas A. Irwin and Jeffrey G. Williamson, “Global Wage Differences and International Student Flows,” Brookings Trade Forum, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2006: 57-96.

19. Vinod B. Agarwal and Donald R. Winkler, “Migration of Foreign Students to the United States,” The Journal of Higher Education, vol. 56, no. 5 (September-October 1985): pp. 509-522.

20. Institute of International Education, Student Mobility and the Internationalization of Higher Education: National Policies and Strategies from Six World Regions, A ProjectAtlas Report, New York: Institute of International Education, 2011.

21. Neil G. Ruiz and Madeline Baron, “Even Without Immigration Reform Foreign Students at Record High,” Washington: Brookings Institution, 2013. Available at www.brookings.edu/blogs/the-avenue/posts/2013/11/15-immigration-reform- foreign-students-ruiz-baron.

22. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “Table 18A: International flows of mobile students at the tertiary level (ISCED 5 and 6),” and for total tertiary enrollment see UNESCO, “Table 15: Enrolments by broad field of education in tertiary education.”

23. Neil G. Ruiz, “Immigration Facts on Foreign Students,” Washington: Brookings Institution, 2013. Available at www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/2013/facts-on-foreign- students.

24. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “Table 18A: International flows of mobile students at the tertiary level (ISCED 5 and 6),” and for total tertiary enrollment see UNESCO, “Table 15: Enrolments by broad field of education in tertiary education.” See also Neil G. Ruiz, “Immigration Facts on Foreign Students,” Washington: Brookings Institution, 2013. Available at www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/2013/facts-on-foreign-students.

25. Immigration and Nationality Act, H.R. 5678, 82 Cong. 2 sess. (Government Printing Office, 1952).

26. Office of Immigration Statistics, “Nonimmigrant Admissions to the United States: 2012, Annual Report,” Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 2013, available at www.dhs.gov/sites/ default/files/publications/ois_ni_fr_2012.pdf. This percentage was calculated by using the total number of non-immigrant admissions data from I-94 forms for academic students on F-1 visa (1,566,815), vocational students on M-1 visa (17,600) and exchange visitors on J-1 visa (421,425). This calculation excludes the spouses and children of F-1 visa holders (69,161) and exchange visitors (53,807). Note that these are “admissions” data which is the number of entries into the United States rather than the number of visas issued (done by the Department of State) or the visa approvals (done by Department of Homeland Security).

27. The pros of making the F-1 visa a “dual intent” visa is that it would allow foreign students studying in the United States to obtain a green card through employer sponsorship while on the F-1 visa, rather than having to obtain one of the limited number of H-1B visas (85,000 per year) available per year. On the other hand, making the program “dual intent” might increase permanent immigration substantially by foreign students sparking a higher demand for foreign students to come study in the United States. This could potentially also decrease wages of native-born workers studying in the same fields and seeking jobs post-graduation since the potential supply of labor would be larger.

28. Immigration and Nationality Act, H.R. 5678, 82 Cong. 2 sess. (Government Printing Office, 1952).

29. Teresa Brawner Bevis and Christopher J. Lucas, International Students in American Colleges and Universities: A History, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.

30. Ibid.

31. Chad C. Haddal, “Foreign Students in the United States: Policies and Legislation,” Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2006.

32. Teresa Brawner Bevis and Christopher J. Lucas, International Students in American Colleges and Universities: A History, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

33. Alison Siskin, “Monitoring Foreign Students in the United States: The Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS),” Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2005.

34. Student and Exchange Visitor Program, “Student and Exchange Visitor Information System: General Summary Quarterly Review,” Washington, DC: Immigration and Customs Enforcement, July 3, 2013, available at www.ice.gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/by-the-numbers.pdf (accessed December 4, 2013).

35. Since full implementation in 2003, SEVIS has been viewed as an adequate system for alerting authorities of suspicious activities or unlawful behavior. There have been several incidences when student visa holders entered the country and school officials reported to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) of their absence that led to surveillance of these students. SEVIS was recently scrutinized during the Boston Marathon bombing that took place on April 15, 2013 since a close friend of one of the bombers entered the U.S. on invalidated F-1 student visas. After this incidence, the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) that is in charge of screening arrivals at airports and borders was ordered to verify each foreign student’s visa status in the SEVIS computer database before approving entry into the United States.

36. Alison Siskin, “Monitoring Foreign Students in the United States: The Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS),” Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2005.

37. Student and Exchange Visitor Program, “Student and Exchange Visitor Information System: General Summary Quarterly Review,” Washington, DC: Immigration and Customs Enforcement, July 3, 2013, available at www.ice.gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/by-the-numbers.pdf (accessed December 4, 2013).

38. During this process, the prospective student receives a visa after paying a $ 200 fee imposed by the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996 that is paid to Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).

39. Chad C. Haddal, “Foreign Students in the United States: Policies and Legislation,” Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2006.

46. A list of approved STEM degrees authorized for the 29 month Optional Practical Training (OPT) is available at: Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “STEM-Designated Degree Program List,” available at www.ice.gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/stem- list.pdf (accessed December 5, 2013).

49. Neil G. Ruiz and Shyamali Choudhury, “Beyond H-1B: Other Avenues to Adding Skilled Workers,” The Avenue, June 25, 2012.

50. Interview with Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Student and Exchange Visitor Program, December 2, 2013.

51. United States Government Accountability Office, “H-1V Visa Program: Reforms Are Needed to minimize the Risks and Costs of the Current Program” (2011).

52. Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson and Shyamali Choudhury, “The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2012, available at: www.brookings.edu/metro/h1b.

53. Ibid.

54. ICE used the Student and Exchange Visitor Program (SEVP) office records that contained all of the I-20 forms data.

55. Interview with staff at the Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Student and Exchange Visitor Program, December 2, 2013.

56. Interview with staff at the Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Student and Exchange Visitor Program, December 2, 2013.

57. Even though the F-1 visa approval data is a flow variable, the report does use stock measures, such as the total number of bachelor’s degrees and higher students in a metropolitan area to baseline the flow data.

60. The 30 metro areas that are in the top 100 most populous but are not a high foreign student metro area include the following: Jacksonville, FL, Memphis, TN, Raleigh, NC, Salt Lake City, UT, Birmingham, AL, Fresno, CA, Albuquerque, NM, Bakersfield, CA, Oxnard, CA, McAllen, TX, Grand Rapids, MI, Greensboro, NC, North Port, FL, Stockton, CA, Charleston, SC, Poughkeepsie, NY, Colorado Springs, CO, Greenville, SC, Cape Coral, FL, Boise City, ID, Lakeland, FL, Des Moines, IA, Augusta, GA, Scranton, PA, Ogden, UT, Youngstown, OH, Harrisburg, PA, Jackson, MS, Chattanooga, TN and Lancaster, PA.

61. For more information about the Carnegie Classification System see: classifications.carnegiefoundation.org (accessed February 1, 2014).

64. Classification of Instruction Programs (CIP) is a standard classification system for postsecondary institutions to describe and aggregate college majors. For more information about CIP codes see the National Center for Education Statistics: www.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/cipcode/Default.aspx?y=55.

67. For information about the decline and outcry after September 11th see B. Lindsay Lowell, Micah Bump and Susan Martin, “Foreign Students Coming to America: The Impact of Policy, Procedures and Economic Competition,” Washington, DC: Georgetown University Institute for the Study of International Migration, 2007.

68. For longer historical period of the growth of international students in the United States from 1950 onwards, see slide two at: www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/2013/facts-on-foreign-students. This data is from the Institute for International Education (IIE) for all international students studying in the United States. Unfortunately the F-1 specific data is not available prior to 2001 since Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) did not collect this data until 2001.

69. This figure includes all F-1 foreign students, including language training, K-12, associates, bachelor’s and higher degree programs.

70. The data in this report do not detail the exact amount of personal funds brought from abroad. Since international students access to the U.S. federal financial aid system is limited, the amount of money brought into the United States to pay for school costs varies by degree program. Unless the student receives financial aid from their home government, a private foundation, or the school, they would be paying for educational expenses from their family or personal income. Foreign students studying for doctoral degrees are more likely to have full or partial funding from fellowships, research assistantships, or teaching grants to cover their educational expenses. Additionally, depending on the field of study and resources available at universities, some master’s students could see the same types of funding as doctoral students. The financial contributions of foreign students have been estimated by NAFSA: Association of International Educators, “International Student Economic Value Tool,” available at www.nafsa.org/economicvalue. Also cited and published in Institute of International Education, Open Doors: Report on International Educational Exchange, New York, 2013.

71. The World Bank, World Development Indicators, Washington, 2013.

72. Randall S. Jones and Satoshi Urasawa, “Sustaining Korea’s Convergence to the Highest-Income Countries,” OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 965, Paris: OECD Publishing, 2012. The International Monetary Fund changed the category of South Korea from a developing to advanced economy in 1997.

74. There rest of the schools (4,127) were for foreign students studying for associates degrees, language training and skills courses such as test preparation courses.

76. For numbers of U.S. overall numbers on business and STEM degree programs the author used data from the National Center for Education Statistics, “Table 318.20. Bachelor’s, master’s, doctor’s degrees conferred by postsecondary institutions, by field of study: Selected years, 1970-71 through 2011-12,” available at www.nces.ed.gov/program s/digest/d13/tables/dt13_318.20.asp. The author calculated percentages based on 2008 to 2012 numbers of the “Business” and “STEM fields” (included “social/behavioral sciences, natural sciences and mathematics, computer sciences) each divided by the total number of bachelor’s, master’s and doctor’s degrees conferred during the same five year period.

77. Brookings analysis of U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey data from 2008 to 2012 period of students in bachelors or higher degree programs in U.S. metropolitan statistical areas.

78. Denis M. McSweeney and Walter J. Marshall, “The Prominence of Boston Area Colleges and Universities,” Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009, available at www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2009/06/regrep.pdf.

79. See Jason Baumgartner analysis available at www.nafsa.org/eis and Institute of International Education, Open Doors: Report on International Educational Exchange, New York, 2013. Foreign graduate students, especially doctorate students, are more likely to be receiving research assistantships or fellowships to cover their tuition and living expenses, while foreign bachelor’s degrees students are less likely.

80. This figure is based on the total “sticker price” tuition for foreign students on F-1 visas to attend these schools. It does not take into account any scholarships, financial aid, research assistantships since the data is not available to make an accurate breakdown.

81. For more information about the Programa de Asistencia Estudiantil see www.academics.utep.edu/Default.aspx?tabid=69645.

82. These 94 cities represent 50.7 percent of all foreign students coming into the U.S. to study. This percentage was calculated by dividing the total number of foreign students on F-1 visas coming from these 94 cities that sent at least 1,500 students during 2008-2012 period over the total number of all foreign students studying in the U.S.

83. Brookings analysis of Immigration and Customs Enforcement data and McKinsey Global Cities of the Future data for city population sizes.

84. Brookings analysis of Brookings analysis of Immigration and Customs Enforcement data and McKinsey Global Cities of the Future data for city GDP per capita.

85. Brookings analysis of Brookings analysis of Immigration and Customs Enforcement data and McKinsey Global Cities of the Future data for city GDP per capita.

86. For example, Chengdu (ranked 17th among source cities of F-1 students) is projected to increase its GDP 5.3 times from a total GDP of $ 58 billion in 2010 to $ 310 billion in 2025. Other projected fast-growing hometowns among the top senders include Wuhan (projected GDP growth 5.0 times of 2010 GDP), Beijing (5.0 times), Nanjing (5.0 times) and Hyderabad (4.6 times). Brookings analysis of McKinsey Global Cities of the Future data.

87. Rodney C. Adkins, “America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here’s How to Get Them,” Forbes Magazine, July 9, 2012.

89. Currently, there are only 207 doctoral-granting institutions under the Carnegie Foundation’s classification system that has high or very high research activity.

90. For more information about the classification system see Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, “Classification Description,” available at www.classificati ons.carnegiefoundation.org/descriptions/basic.php (accessed October 2, 2013).

91. Graduates from U.S. higher educational institutions with STEM-designated degrees can work under OPT for 29 months. All other U.S. degree holders can only work for up to 12 months. Obtaining OPT requires the student to apply through their degree granting university for approval by the U.S. government. There is no cap on the number of OPTs that can be approved per year.

92. This uses newly acquired SEVIS data granted to the author from Immigration and Customs Enforcement under a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request.

93. Note that Princeton University is located in Mercer County which is the only county that is part of the Trenton-Ewing, NJ metropolitan area. There are significant pharmaceutical companies and employers located within the region, but outside of the Trenton metro area that may be employing Princeton University foreign graduates to stay in the region after graduation. But to keep consistent to metropolitan areas, this analysis only calculated the percentage of OPTs staying the exact metropolitan areas as the school the foreign student graduated from, rather than a broader region.

94. The numerator of this ratio (number of OPTs granted to former foreign students on F-1s who attended school in the metropolitan area) does not necessarily translate to the same foreign student in the denominator. Since the ratio is of OPTs divided by foreign students on F-1 during the same 2008-2012 period, there may be OPTs who were on an F-1 visa before 2008 and also current F-1s who are freshmen to juniors in college who have not attempted to apply for an OPT.

95. Neil G. Ruiz and Shyamali Choudhury, “Beyond H-1B: Other Avenues to Adding Skilled Workers,” The Avenue, June 25, 2012, available at http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/the-avenue/posts/2012/06/25-h1b- immigration-ruiz-choudhury.

97. Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson and Shyamali Choudhury, “The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2012, available at: www.brookings.edu/metro/h1b.

101. For more information about the significance of exports to metropolitan economies see Emilia Istrate and Nicholas Marchio, “Export Nation 2012: How U.S. Metropolitan Areas are Driving National Growth,” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2012, available at: http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2012/03/08-exports.

102. Interview with Richard Drobnick, Director for Global Business Excellence and Center for International Business Education and Research (CIBER), USC Marshall School of Business, October 29, 2013.

103. Interview with Peter Koveos, Director of the Center for International Business, Syracuse University School of Management, November 1, 2013.

104. High demand H-1B metros are the 106 metro areas that were the focus of the author’s previous study examining the geographic demand for H-1B workers in U.S. metropolitan areas. These metros are defined by having an average of at least 250 H-1B requests by employers in the 2010-2011 period. For more information, see Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson and Shyamali Choudhury, “The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2012, available at: www.brookings.edu/metro/h1b.

105. Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson and Shyamali Choudhury, “The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2012, available at: www.brookings.edu/metro/h1b.


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